The Colonial Context and Aesthetic Identity Formation: Coomaraswamy, A Case Study
European philologists paved the way for the development of a new branch of study in the nineteenth century, known as “Indology.” Sanskrit was recognized as one of the oldest classical languages. Great zeal was shown towards translating the texts written in this old classical language into various European languages. These linguistic studies prepared a road-map for further studies in ancient Indian religion, philosophy, grammar, mathematics, astronomy, etc. Besides philological studies, during the nineteenth and early decades of the twentieth centuries, extensive surveys were conducted for collecting antiquities, especially art objects, by the British officers or by the Indians trained by the British. Special officers were appointed to keep record of the historical monuments in India. A number of historical sites were excavated and the reports were published not only in India but also in Europe. Precious and exclusive antiquities were taken to England for exhibition. Thus the textual knowledge about India could be corroborated with tangible evidence strengthening the academic base of Indological studies. The effect of all these historical developments was that a Euro-centric construction of India started emerging and gaining wide acceptability. Gradually, however, this construction started getting challenged by the western-educated Indians who were becoming conscious about “Indian Identity” as an essential part of the colonial resistance. Many scholars well versed in European classical languages and modern European ideas like liberalism created a counter-discourse for the historical reconstruction of India. The counter-discourse was likely to be more effective in the field of ancient Indian studies because of two reasons. Firstly, India was claiming the continuity of a living tradition of thousands of years: hence the claim of Indians of a better understanding of that tradition would be valid. Secondly, the more distant the past the more would be the scope for speculation. The awe inspiring antiquity of India’s past based on the philological evidences facilitated the cause of the Indians of claiming a superior position in the entire human civilization. Since it was not possible in the contemporary socio-political and economic areas it was searched in such areas which the West would not be able to refute. With an example of the study of Indian aesthetic tradition, presented by the scholars like A. K. Coomarswamy, here is an attempt to place the early phase of Indological studies in the colonial and the postcolonial context.
There are two distinct phases of the study of aesthetics in India; pre-colonial and colonial onwards. The first is of a long stretch of time approximately of three thousand years going by the literary evidence or of five thousand years by the archaeological evidence.1 The colonial phase is marked by the study of Indian art and aesthetics by the Europeans and by the western-educated Indians. In the first phase art and knowledge regarding art was created by the Indians and in the second phase the Indian-ness of that knowledge and creativity was deliberated upon. Thus the study of the Indian aesthetics also becomes a part of the study of ‘Identity’ formation of the Indians during the colonial period. Through the example of the works of A. K. Coomarswamy here is an attempt to place the study of Indian aesthetics in the context of the colonial studies.
Ananda Kentish Coomarswamy, son of a Simhalese Indian father (Sir Mutu Coomarswamy) and English mother (Lady Elizabeth Clay Beevy of Kent), was born in Colombo, Sri Lanka, on August 22, 1887. He received education in some of the best institutions of England and became Doctor of Science in Geology. He worked as a Geologist in Sri Lanka for three years (1903-1906). This was the time when he could get acquainted with the living craft traditions of the land he was serving as a surveyor. One can see the effect of this first-hand experience of indigenous traditions in the forceful statements that he made with regards to the Indian-ness of art. This experience was further strengthened by extensive field data collection that he did in India for a period of about eight years (1909-1917).Thereafter he spent a major part of his life in the United States of America. This country seems to have provided him all that is needed for the kind of task he had designed for himself. Boston, the place where his genius was fully recognized and nurtured, became his home for the rest of his life. He breathed his last in Needham, Massachusetts, on September 9th, 1947 with an unfulfilled dream of returning to India for ever.
There are about 500 publications to the credit of A.K. Coomarswamy, a majority dealing with Indian art, aesthetics and the religio-philosophical tradition.2 Mediaeval Sinhalese Art, his first book, published in 1908 received acclamation from the contemporary critics. This marked the beginning of his career as an art historian. It is essential to note here that the book was published in London where he was associated with people like C.R. Ashbee, a social philosopher; and also where he met Sister Nivedita.3 The work thus has two strong associations, firstly his recently acquired first-hand knowledge of indigenous arts and crafts and secondly, the people who had specific ideas about India under the British rule and a specific plan for the future of India.
This period was also very significant from the point of view of the discovery and reconstruction of India’s past with the initiative taken by Lord Curzon, (1899-1905) the then Viceroy of India. Curzon, otherwise infamous in Indian nationalist historiography,4 was considered to be a great savior of India’s cultural treasure antiquities and monuments. In the official history of the Archaeological Survey of India he is given a singular position for his devotion to the cause of archaeology.5 Curzon’s biggest contribution to the study of India’s past was the enactment of the Ancient Monuments Preservation Act of 1904. This gave power to the government to acquire ownership, where necessary and possible, of monuments and objects of archaeological and historical interest. Curzon’s zeal for preservation of the historical monuments was such that allowing the devotees to whitewash the Tombs of saints at Bijapur (a town in Karnataka famous for Islamic architecture) annually could be no less than a crime for him. The exploration and preservation-conservation work undertaken by the Archaeological Survey during the subsequent decades followed the same spirit. Looking back in retrospect it appears like a Curzon syndrome in the study of India’s art heritage.
What exactly was done by the British rulers to the cultural heritage of India? The answer to this question sets the background to the analysis of study of any of the components of India’s culture undertaken during the colonial period, A.K. Coomarswamy’s work being no exception to it. Politically speaking, it appears that the colonial masters were already in possession of the present and hence also the future of India (at least they thought so)6 and there was a systematic attempt to hold control over her past as well. For exercising this kind of control it was necessary to distance the past and push it back as much as possible. The British were defining the past in a manner so that the weakness of the “natives” and their own superiority would be highlighted. In the areas of the socio-political history it was easily possible. However, in certain fields such as art, literature and philosophy, the power polemic of racial superiority would not have worked. By the time of the consolidation of British rule in India the academicians in the field of Indology had already created an image of “civilized” India. Great scholars like Max Muller had championed the cause of India for establishment of her cultural superiority in comparison to the west in many respects.7 Thus, the safer way out with respect to the art heritage of India vis-à-vis British rule was to take the role of the benevolent preserver of that past heritage, which would otherwise have decayed. To quote Curzon, “a race like our own, who are themselves foreigners, are in a sense better fitted to guard, with a dispassionate and impartial zeal, the relics of different ages, and of sometimes antagonistic beliefs than might be the descendants of the warring races of the votaries of the rival creeds”. 8
In addition to this imperialistic arrogance the unsympathetic and misleading writings of some of the western critics created grounds for an Indian construction of her cultural past, more a reaction prompted by self-respect. In 1910 Sir George Birdwood is supposed to have compared the image of Buddha to a suet pudding.9 Similar attack can be seen in Vincent Smith’s early writings as well. He shows a tendency of totally rejecting such Indian art objects which did not suit to the European concept of beauty. This can best be seen in his assessment of the Indian images from Gupta period onwards. He does not hesitate in stating, “The many headed and many-armed gods and goddesses whose images crowded the walls and roofs of the mediaeval temples have no pretensions of beauty, and are frequently hideous and grotesque.”10 Secondly, where ever such negation was impossible, then it was declared to have emerged due to the Greek influence.11 It is not surprising that the enlightened Indians promptly came forward to defend the Indian case. Works like that of A.K. Coomarswamy, thus need to be placed in the context of the National awakening in India. In fact Coomarswamy seemed to have taken an extreme stand in highlighting the role of art in the process of nation building. He states in his message on India’s Independence, “Nations are created by artists and poets not by merchants and politicians. In art lies the deepest life principle.” 12
The study of Indian art and aesthetics done by Coomarswamy and other like-minded people has one more context and that is the restlessness over the decline of the west felt by some of the Europeans. There seemed to be desperation for saving Europe and in that task the supposedly universal cultural values, best preserved by the tradition of Indian art and philosophy, needed to be invoked. This is clearly evident from the preface to Ananda Coomarswamy’s book ‘The Dance of Shiva’, written by Romain Rolland. To quote, “But Europe in her arrogance does not admit that she can have need of Asia, whom for centuries she has trampled under foot, without once the suspicion stirring that she was playing the part of Alaric on the ruins of Rome. But Rome has vanquished the conquering barbarians, as Greece has vanquished Rome, as India and China will finally vanquish Europe - a victory to the soul.”13
Indian aesthetics forcefully projected in the west by way of art exhibitions and live performances by talented Indians like Rabindranath Tagore, in additions to the writings and lectures by scholars of religion, philosophy, literature and art, during the early decades of the twentieth century, was part of a movement towards creating a Universal Word Order.14 The spiritual base of the Indian Aesthetic tradition put forth by art historians like Coomarswamy was found to be most useful for the cause of arresting cultural decay of Europe and restoration of peace during this phase of intense political conflict. Coomarswamy appeared to be fully convinced about the capabilities of the Indians in achieving this goal. Besides, he strongly believed that Europe could be saved if Asia was saved, (obviously India is intended as an integral part of Asia.) “Save Asia!” said Coomarswamy, “Her idealism is in danger. If you do not save her, beware least great Nemesis turn back on you, by the hand of Asia, the imperialism of wealth and of violence with which you would have armed her. The degradation of Asia will be the cause of your ruin. In her uplift lies your safety.”15
The understanding of aesthetics put forth by Coomarswamy in many ways suited to the purpose of establishing a peaceful coexistence of world communities. This can be illustrated by his concluding remarks in the book Introduction to Indian Art (1913):
What is needed in either case is to place oneself in the position of the artist by whom the unfamiliar work was actually made and in the position of the patron for whom the work was made: to think their thoughts and to see with their eyes. For so long as the work of art appears to us in any way exotic, bizarre, quaint or arbitrary, we cannot pretend to have understood it. It is not to enlarge our collection of bric-a-brac that we aught to study ancient or foreign arts, but to enlarge our own consciousness of being.
Over and again, while holding a strong view regarding the exceptional position of traditional Indian art, Coomarswamy brought in the universals in art. This he achieved by relating art to mysticism. Thus, his interpretation of Shiva Nataraja (Shiva in the cosmic dance posture) reads, “First, it is the image of the Rhythmic Play as the source of all movement within the cosmos is represented by the Arch; secondly, the purpose of His dance is to release the countless souls of men from the snare of illusion; thirdly, the place of dance, Chidambaram, the centre of the Universe, is within the Heart.”16
Some of the strong convictions with regards to art that Coomarswamy held were deeply rooted in the war-born anxieties of the contemporary world in general and the Indian national struggle in particular. As summarized by Muni Bagchee, the following are the basic philosophical conventions of Coomarswamy which are well applicable to his understanding of Aesthetics:
First the basis of all civilization is essentially spiritual and that, while modern Europe has repudiated this basic, the Orient has always held fast to it; secondly, that in the East and particularly in India, all art, literature and philosophy are wholly religious, and hence mainly preoccupied with man’s longing to ‘ reach the divine’; thirdly, that Indian art and poetry have, therefore, never been representational and must not be judged or interpreted on the basis of the modern criteria of individual expression or veracity to material reality; fourthly, that the social and political organization of the Oriental society has always been perfectly adapted to the fundamentally religious basis of life; and its customs, institutions and economic methods are therefore self-sufficient and harmonious; and lastly, that the way of life evolved by the west as the result of modern industrialism is unreal, destructive of spiritual and aesthetic refinement, degrading, immoral and frustrating; and that the impact of this upon this ancient Oriental societies has been wholly evil.17
If placed in the colonial context, Coomarswamy becomes a classic example of a paradox very often seen in the Oriental constructions. On one hand, there are extremely forceful and convincing arguments in favor of Oriental superiority and on the other hand the Orient in its action does no seem to be subscribing them. Questions such as why Coomarswamy failed to get any tangible support in his endeavor of creating a National Art Museum in India (at Varanasi – the spiritual capital of India) to house the choicest pieces of Indian art and crafts become very pertinent and intriguing in the context of the strongly advocated Oriental values and spiritual understanding of its culture. When the Boston museum purchased the treasures of Indian art, laboriously collected by A. K. Coomarswamy, did it not create cultural alienation of the art objects? Who was preserving whose cultural relics and why? In other words, did the showcasing of Indian art not become a part of the imperial design of distancing the past of the colonies? A great scholar like Coomarswamy probably could command respect for his knowledge of the Orient but it appears to be the knowledge that the occident could objectify and appreciate from beyond the contours of the Orient. Looking back in retrospect it appears that the spiritual and philosophical understanding of Indian art is more a matter of an intellectually satisfying exercise but it is not sufficient to establish the relation of art to life in India. Coomarswamy has immensely contributed to the first aspect, the second needs to be undertaken as a big project covering vast areas of socio-political and economic life in relation to art and aesthetics.
Select Bibliography
Coomarswamy, A. K. (1913) Introduction to Indian Art. Theosophical Publishing House, Madras, (Chenai)
-- (1918-22). The Dance of Shiva, Indian Edition, (1974) Munshiram Manoharilal Publishers Private Limited. Delhi.
-- (1927). History of Indian and Indonesian Art, Indian Edition, (1972) Munshiram Manoharilal Publishers Private Limited. Delhi.
Roy, Sourindranath (1961). The Story of Indian Archaeology: 1784-1947. Archaeological Survey of India. Delhi.
Thapar, Romila. (1966). A History of India, volume 1. Penguin Books India (p) Ltd. Delhi.
Shastri, P. S. (1974). Ananda K. Coomarswamy. Arnold- Heinemann Publishers (India) Private Limited, Delhi.
Bagchee, Moni. (1977). Ananda Coomarswamy: A Study. Bharat Manisha Research Series 9, Varanasi.
Tillotson, G.H.R. (ed.) (1988). Paradigms of Indian Architecture; Space and Time in Representation and Design (Collected Papers on South Asia No. 13.) Curzon Press, London.
Limaye, Madhu. (1989). Indian National Movement: Its Ideological and Socio-Economic Dimensions. Radiant Publishers. Delhi.
Ray, Sibanarayan.(1992). The Universality of Man: The Messags of Romain Rolland. Sahitya Akadami. Delhi.
Loomba, Ania. (1998). Colonialism/ Postcolonialism. The new Critical Idiom, Series. Routledge, London.
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1. Going by the most accepted date for the early Vedic period which marks the beginning of literary tradition in the form of superb poetry, the aesthetic tradition of India is at least three thousand years old if not more. The archaeological evidence for the Harappan civilization dates back to third millennium B..C. See Thapar, Romola. A History of India: Vol. 1. p. 29.
2. Bagchee, Moni. (1977). Ananda Coomarswamy: A Study: Varanasi, Bharat Manisha.
3. Ibid, p.48.
4. Limaye, Madhu.(1989). Indian Nationalist Movement: Its Ideological and Socio-Economic Dimensions. Delhi. Radient Publishers. Pp.134-140.
5. “No other ruler of India before or after has evinced so single-minded a devotion to the cause of archaeology, when all is said, it has to be admitted that he succeeded in rekindling an archaeological conscience in the country and placing the Archaeological Survey of India for the first time on a sound and secure foundation.” Roy, Sourindranath. (1961) The Story of Indian Archaeology, 1784-1947. Archaeological Survey of India, New Dehli. Pp. 78-90.
6. Curzon is reported to have written in one of his letters to the Secretary of States in 1900, “My own belief is that Congress is tottering to its fall, and one of my great ambitions while in India is to assist it to a peaceful demise.” Quoted in Rise and fulfilment of British rule in India Edward Thompson and G.T. Garratt, Indian edition, Central Book Depot, Allahabad 1958.
7. M. Muller,(1883). India, What Can it Teach Us? London.
8. As quoted in Paradigms of Indian Architecture. G. H. R. Tillotson(ed), Collected Papers On South Asia, London, 1998.
9. Shastri, P . S. (1974). Ananda K. Coomarswamy. Delhi, Indian Writers Series. General Editor: C. D. Narasimhaiah. P.16.
10. Smith, V. As quoted in The Dance Of Shiva (Collection of Essays, 1918-1922),Coomarswamy, A. K. First Indian Edition,( 1974), Delhi, Munshiram Manoharilal p. 96
11. Smith, V. As quoted in A History Of India. Volume 1. Romila Thapar, (1990) Reprint. Penguin History. P. 18.
12. As quoted in Bagchee, Moni. Op. cit. p. 84.
13. Coomarswamy, A. K. The Dance Of Shiva.
14. Coomarswamy wrote a Foreword to the souvenir published on the occasion of an exhibition of Tagore’s paintings at New York in 1930. There he calls Tagore ‘a citizen of the world’. Bagchee, Moni. Op. cit p.160.
15. Coomarswamy,A.K. The Dance Of Shiva. AS quoted by Romain Rolland in the preface.
16. Ibid p 93.
17. Bagchee, Moni. Op.cit. pp. 111-112.
